(Click here for "Full Table of Contents".)
| Preface | vii |
| List of Figures | xxi |
| List of Tables | xxxi |
| Part I: Introduction | 1 |
| 1 -- Optical Networking: Principles and Challenges | 3 |
| 2 -- Enabling Technologies: Building Blocks | 23 |
Part II: Broadcast (Local) Optical Networks | 107 |
| 3 -- Single-Hop Networks | 109 |
| 4 -- Single-Hop Case Study: IBM Rainbow Protocol | 149 |
| 5 -- Multihop Networks | 171 |
| 6 -- Multihop Case Study: GEMNET | 203 |
| 7 -- Channel-Sharing and Multicasting | 219 |
Part III: Wavelength-Routed (Wide-Area) Optical Networks | 257 |
| 8 -- Elements of Virtual Topology Design | 259 |
| 9 -- Virtual Topology: LP, Cost, Reconfiguration | 291 |
| 10 -- Routing and Wavelength Assignment | 321 |
| 11 -- Wavelength Conversion | 341 |
| 12 -- Additional Topics on Wavelength Routing | 367 |
Part IV: Potpourri | 395 |
| 13 -- Multiwavelength Ring Networks | 397 |
| 14 -- All-Optical Cycle Elimination | 431 |
| 15 -- Optimizing Amplifier Placements in an Optical LAN/MAN | 463 |
| 16 -- Optical TDM and CDM Networks | 493 |
Appendix A: Further Reading | 523 |
Appendix B: Glossary of Important Terms | 527 |
Bibliography | 533 |
Index | 565 |
Preface . . . . vii
List of Figures . . . . xxi
List of Tables . . . . xxxi
1 -- Optical Networking: Principles and Challenges . . . . 3
2 -- Enabling Technologies: Building Blocks . . . . 23
3 -- Single-Hop Networks . . . . 109
4 -- Single-Hop Case Study: IBM Rainbow Protocol . . . . 149
5 -- Multihop Networks . . . . 171
6 -- Multihop Case Study: GEMNET . . . . 203
7 -- Channel-Sharing and Multicasting . . . . 219
8 -- Elements of Virtual Topology Design . . . . 259
9 -- Virtual Topology: LP, Cost, Reconfiguration . . . . 291
10 -- Routing and Wavelength Assignment . . . . 321
11 -- Wavelength Conversion . . . . 341
12 -- Additional Topics on Wavelength Routing . . . . 367
13 -- Multiwavelength Ring Networks . . . . 397
14 -- All-Optical Cycle Elimination . . . . 431
15 -- Optimizing Amplifier Placements in an Optical LAN/MAN . . . . 463
16 -- Optical TDM and CDM Networks . . . . 493
Appendix A: Further Reading . . . . 523
Appendix B: Glossary of Important Terms . . . . 527
Bibliography . . . . 533
Index . . . . 565
Back to: Brief Table of Contents | Full Table of Contents
Part I: Introduction . . . . 1
1.1 Need + Promise = Challenge! . . . . 3
1.2 xDM vs. xDMA . . . . 5
1.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) . . . . 5
1.3.1 A Sample WDM Networking Problem . . . . 7
1.4 WDM Networking Evolution . . . . 8
1.4.1 Point-to-Point WDM Systems . . . . 8
1.4.2 Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexer (WADM) . . . . 9
1.4.3 Fiber and Wavelength Crossconnects -- Passive Star,
Passive Router, and Active Switch . . . . 10
1.5 WDM Network Constructions . . . . 14
1.5.1 Broadcast-and-Select (Local) Optical WDM Network . . . . 14
Passive-Star-Based Optical WDM LAN vs. Centralized,
Nonblocking-Switch-Based LAN . . . . 15
1.5.2 Wavelength-Routed (Wide-Area) Optical Network . . . . 15
1.6 WDM Economics . . . . 17
1.7 Road Map -- Organization of the Book . . . . 18
Exercises . . . . 20
2.1 Optical Fiber . . . . 24
2.1.1 Optical Transmission in Fiber . . . . 25
2.1.2 Single-Mode vs. Multimode Fiber . . . . 28
2.1.3 Attenuation in Fiber . . . . 30
2.1.4 Dispersion in Fiber . . . . 31
2.1.5 Nonlinearities in Fiber . . . . 32
Nonlinear Refraction . . . . 32
Stimulated Raman Scattering . . . . 33
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering . . . . 34
Four-Wave Mixing . . . . 34
Summary . . . . 34
2.1.6 Couplers . . . . 35
2.2 Optical Transmitters . . . . 37
2.2.1 How a Laser Works . . . . 37
Semiconductor Diode Lasers . . . . 39
2.2.2 Tunable and Fixed Lasers . . . . 40
Laser Characteristics . . . . 41
Mechanically Tuned Lasers . . . . 42
Acoustooptically and Electrooptically
Tuned Lasers . . . . 42
Injection-Current-Tuned Lasers . . . . 42
Laser Arrays . . . . 43
2.2.3 Optical Modulation . . . . 43
2.2.4 Summary . . . . 44
2.3 Optical Receivers and Filters . . . . 44
2.3.1 Photodetection . . . . 45
2.3.2 Tunable Optical Filters . . . . 46
Filter Characteristics . . . . 46
The Etalon . . . . 47
The Mach-Zehnder Chain . . . . 48
Acoustooptic Filters . . . . 49
Electrooptic Filters . . . . 50
Liquid-Crystal Fabry-Perot Filters . . . . 50
Summary . . . . 50
2.3.3 Fixed Filters . . . . 50
Grating Filters . . . . 51
Fiber Bragg Gratings . . . . 51
Thin-Film Interference Filters . . . . 52
2.4 Optical Amplifiers . . . . 52
2.4.1 Optical Amplifier Characteristics . . . . 53
2.4.2 Semiconductor Laser Amplifier . . . . 54
2.4.3 Doped-Fiber Amplifier . . . . 55
2.5 Switching Elements . . . . 57
2.5.1 Fiber Crossconnect Elements . . . . 58
Directive Switches . . . . 59
Gate Switches . . . . 61
2.5.2 Nonreconfigurable Wavelength Router . . . . 62
Waveguide Grating Routers . . . . 63
2.5.3 Reconfigurable Wavelength-Routing Switch . . . . 66
2.5.4 Photonic Packet Switches . . . . 66
The Staggering Switch . . . . 67
Contention Resolution by Delay Lines (CORD) . . . . 68
The HLAN Architecture . . . . 69
2.6 Wavelength Conversion . . . . 69
2.6.1 Wavelength Conversion Technologies . . . . 73
Opto-Electronic Wavelength Conversion . . . . 73
Wavelength Conversion Using Coherent Effects . . . . 74
Wavelength Conversion Using Cross Modulation . . . . 75
Summary . . . . 77
2.6.2 Wavelength Conversion in Switches . . . . 78
2.7 Designing WDM Networks: Systems Considerations . . . . 79
2.7.1 Channels . . . . 82
2.7.2 Power Considerations . . . . 83
2.7.3 Additional Considerations . . . . 85
2.7.4 Elements of Local-Area WDM Network Design . . . . 85
The Network Medium . . . . 85
Network Nodes . . . . 87
Node Separation in Passive-Star Coupler WDM
Local Area Networks . . . . 88
2.7.5 WDM Wide-Area Network Design Issues . . . . 89
2.8 Experimental WDM Lightwave Networks . . . . 91
2.8.1 Local Area Network Testbeds . . . . 91
LAMBDANET . . . . 91
Rainbow . . . . 91
2.8.2 Wide-Area Network Testbeds . . . . 92
RACE MultiWavelength Transport Network . . . . 92
MONET . . . . 93
ONTC . . . . 94
AON . . . . 95
Exercises . . . . 97
Part II: Broadcast (Local) Optical Networks . . . . 107
3.1 A Passive-Star-Based Local Lightwave Network . . . . 109
3.2 Characteristics of a Single-Hop System . . . . 113
3.3 Experimental WDM Systems . . . . 115
3.3.1 LAMBDANET . . . . 116
3.3.2 Rainbow . . . . 116
3.3.3 Fiber-Optic Crossconnect . . . . 117
3.3.4 STARNET . . . . 117
3.3.5 Other Experimental WDM Systems . . . . 118
3.4 Other Non-Pretransmission Coordination Protocols . . . . 118
3.4.1 Fixed Assignment . . . . 119
3.4.2 Partial Fixed Assignment Protocols . . . . 120
3.4.3 Random Access Protocols I . . . . 121
3.4.4 Random Access Protocols II . . . . 122
3.4.5 The PAC Optical Network . . . . 123
3.5 Pretransmission Coordination Protocols . . . . 123
3.5.1 Partial Random Access Protocols . . . . 123
3.5.2 Improved Random Access Protocols . . . . 126
Bimodal Throughput, Nonmonotonic Delay, and
Receiver Collisions . . . . 126
3.5.3 Extended Slotted-ALOHA and Reservation-ALOHA
Protocols . . . . 129
3.5.4 Receiver Collision Avoidance (RCA) Protocol . . . . 132
Channel Selection . . . . 132
Node Activity List (NAL) . . . . 132
Packet Transmission . . . . 133
Packet Reception . . . . 133
Performance . . . . 133
3.5.5 Reservation Protocols . . . . 133
3.5.6 The TDMA/N-Server Protocol . . . . 137
3.6 Special Case: Linear Bus with Attempt-and-Defer Nodes . . . . 138
3.6.1 AMTRAC . . . . 139
3.6.2 Multichannel Probabilistic Scheduling . . . . 139
3.7 Summary . . . . 139
Exercises . . . . 141
4.1 Introduction . . . . 149
4.2 Rainbow Protocol . . . . 151
4.3 Model . . . . 152
4.4 Analysis . . . . 155
4.5 Illustrative Examples . . . . 159
4.6 Summary . . . . 166
Exercises . . . . 167
5.1 Characteristics of a Multihop System . . . . 171
5.2 Topological Optimization Studies . . . . 174
5.2.1 Flow-Based Optimization . . . . 174
5.2.2 Delay-Based Optimization . . . . 175
5.3 Regular Structures . . . . 176
5.3.1 ShuffleNet . . . . 176
Simple Routing in ShuffleNet . . . . 178
Effect of Nonuniform Traffic on ShuffleNet
Performance . . . . 179
Adaptive and Deflection Routing Strategies
in ShuffleNet . . . . 180
5.3.2 de Bruijn Graph . . . . 181
5.3.3 Torus (Manhattan Street Network) . . . . 183
Comparison of MSN and ShuffleNet . . . . 183
An All-Optical Switch for a MSN Node . . . . 186
The Token Grid . . . . 186
5.3.4 Hypercube . . . . 186
Binary Hypercube . . . . 187
Generalized Hypercube . . . . 187
5.3.5 Other Regular Multihop Topologies . . . . 188
5.4 Near-Optimal Node Placement on Regular Structures . . . . 188
5.4.1 Flow-Based Heuristics . . . . 189
Min-Max . . . . 189
SORTed First-Fit . . . . 190
First-Fit SUPERnodes . . . . 190
First-Fit on Binary TREE . . . . 190
Divide and Minimize Link Flow (DMF) . . . . 191
Iterative Approach . . . . 191
5.4.2 Delay-Based Heuristics . . . . 192
Load over Distance . . . . 192
Divide and Minimize Delay and Iterative Approach . . . . 192
5.4.3 Dynamic Load Balancing . . . . 192
5.5 Shared-Channel Multihop Systems . . . . 192
5.5.1 Channel-Sharing in ShuffleNet . . . . 193
5.5.2 Channel-Sharing in the Manhattan Street Network . . . . 193
5.5.3 Channel-Sharing in the Generalized Hypercube . . . . 194
5.5.4 Multihop Systems Based on Subcarrier Multiplexing . . . . 195
5.6 Summary . . . . 195
Exercises . . . . 197
6.1 Introduction . . . . 203
6.2 GEMNET Architecture . . . . 206
6.2.1 Interconnection Pattern . . . . 206
6.2.2 Routing . . . . 206
6.3 GEMNET Properties . . . . 208
6.3.1 Routing Algorithms for Balancing Link Loading . . . . 208
6.3.2 Bounds on the Average Hop Distance . . . . 209
6.3.3 Which Configuration of GEMNET Is the Best? . . . . 211
6.4 Scalability -- Adapting the Size of a GEMNET . . . . 213
Exercises . . . . 217
7.1 Introduction . . . . 220
7.2 Background . . . . 222
7.2.1 Channel-Sharing . . . . 222
7.2.2 Multicasting . . . . 224
7.3 Shared-Channel Multihop GEMNET . . . . 226
7.4 Performance Evaluation . . . . 229
7.5 Illustrative Examples: Unicast Traffic . . . . 237
7.5.1 Twelve-Node Example: Various Delay Components . . . . 238
7.5.2 Twelve-Node Example: Delay Behavior with
Variation in \lambda . . . . 240
7.5.3 Delay Behavior in Larger Networks . . . . 243
7.6 Illustrative Examples: Multicast Traffic . . . . 246
7.7 Summary . . . . 251
Exercises . . . . 253
Part III: Wavelength-Routed (Wide-Area) Optical Networks . . . . 257
8.1 Introduction . . . . 260
8.2 System Architecture . . . . 261
8.2.1 Motivation . . . . 261
8.2.2 General Problem Statement . . . . 263
8.2.3 An Illustrative Example . . . . 265
8.3 Formulation of the Optimization Problem . . . . 271
8.3.1 Given: . . . . 271
8.3.2 Variables: . . . . 272
8.3.3 Constraints: . . . . 272
8.3.4 Objective: Optimality Criterion . . . . 274
8.3.5 Explanation of Equations . . . . 274
8.4 Algorithms . . . . 275
8.4.1 Subproblems . . . . 275
8.4.2 Previous Work . . . . 275
8.4.3 Our Solution Approach . . . . 276
8.4.4 Simulated Annealing . . . . 277
8.4.5 Flow Deviation Algorithm . . . . 278
8.5 Experimental Results . . . . 278
8.5.1 Physical Topology as Virtual Topology (No WDM) . . . . 280
8.5.2 Multiple Point-to-Point Links (No WRS) . . . . 281
8.5.3 Arbitrary Virtual Topology (Full WDM) . . . . 282
8.5.4 Comparisons . . . . 282
8.5.5 Effect of Nodal Degree and Wavelength
Requirements . . . . 285
8.6 Summary . . . . 287
Exercises . . . . 288
9.1 Introduction . . . . 292
9.2 Problem Specification . . . . 293
9.2.1 Linear Formulation . . . . 295
9.2.2 Simplifying Assumptions . . . . 299
9.3 Heuristic Approaches . . . . 302
9.4 Network Design: Resource Budgeting and Cost Model . . . . 304
9.4.1 Resource Budgeting . . . . 304
9.4.2 Network Cost Model . . . . 305
9.5 Virtual Topology Reconfiguration . . . . 308
9.5.1 Reconfiguration Algorithm . . . . 309
9.6 Illustrative Examples . . . . 310
9.7 Summary . . . . 316
Exercises . . . . 317
10.1 Introduction . . . . 321
10.2 Problem Formulation . . . . 325
10.2.1 Solution Approach . . . . 326
10.2.2 Problem Size Reduction . . . . 326
10.2.3 Randomized Rounding . . . . 328
10.2.4 Graph Coloring . . . . 330
10.3 Illustrative Examples . . . . 332
10.3.1 Static Lightpath Establishment (SLE) . . . . 332
10.3.2 Dynamic Lightpath Establishment (DLE) . . . . 336
10.4 Summary . . . . 338
Exercises . . . . 339
11.1 Introduction . . . . 341
11.2 Basics of Wavelength Conversion . . . . 344
11.2.1 Wavelength Converters . . . . 344
11.2.2 Switches . . . . 345
11.3 Network Design, Control, and Management Issues . . . . 347
11.3.1 Network Design . . . . 347
11.3.2 Network Control . . . . 348
11.3.3 Network Management . . . . 349
11.4 Benefit Analysis . . . . 350
11.4.1 A Probabilistic Approach to Wavelength-Conversion
Benefits Analysis . . . . 351
11.4.2 A Review of Benefit-Analysis Studies . . . . 352
11.5 Benefits of Sparse Conversion . . . . 356
11.5.1 Goals . . . . 356
Three Degrees of Sparseness . . . . 356
11.5.2 Simulator . . . . 357
11.5.3 Single Optical Rings . . . . 357
11.5.4 NSFNET . . . . 358
Sparse Nodal Conversion: Which Nodes Need
Full Conversion? . . . . 358
Heuristic Wavelength Converter Placement . . . . 360
Traffic-Load Influences on the Benefit of
Wavelength Converters . . . . 361
Limited Wavelength Converters at each Node . . . . 361
Sparse- (or Limited-) Range Wavelength
Conversion . . . . 361
11.6 Summary . . . . 363
Exercises . . . . 364
12.1 Introduction . . . . 367
12.2 Circuit-Switched Approaches . . . . 369
12.2.1 LDC-Based Approach . . . . 369
12.2.2 Lightpath-Based Approach . . . . 370
12.2.3 Multihop Virtual Circuits . . . . 370
12.2.4 Routing of Session Traffic . . . . 371
12.2.5 Bounds for the RWA Problem . . . . 371
12.2.6 Least-Congested-Path (LCP) Routing . . . . 372
12.2.7 Wavelength-Conversion-Based Routing . . . . 373
12.2.8 Latin-Router-Based Routing . . . . 373
12.2.9 Theoretical Results . . . . 374
12.3 Packet-Switched Approaches . . . . 375
12.3.1 Logical Topologies for Electronic
Packet-Switched Networks . . . . 376
12.3.2 Deflection Routing Networks . . . . 377
12.3.3 Optical Packet-Switch Design . . . . 377
12.4 Reconfiguration in WDM Networks . . . . 377
12.4.1 Passive-Star-Based (LAN) Algorithms . . . . 378
Branch Exchange in Reconfiguration . . . . 378
Physical Interconnection of Passive-Star Networks . . . 379
Reconfiguration Criteria in Multihop WDM Networks . . . 379
12.4.2 WAN Algorithms . . . . 380
Circuit Rerouting Algorithm for WDM WAN . . . . 380
12.5 WDM Network Control and Management . . . . 381
12.5.1 State Information . . . . 382
Connection Switch Table . . . . 383
CST Update Protocol . . . . 383
Topology Update . . . . 383
12.5.2 Connection Setup . . . . 384
12.5.3 Connection Takedown and Update . . . . 384
12.5.4 Fault Recovery . . . . 384
Wavelength Failure . . . . 384
Link Failure . . . . 385
12.6 Amplification-Related Issues . . . . 385
12.7 Systems Design Considerations . . . . 386
12.8 Testbed Proposals . . . . 387
12.8.1 AT&T/MIT-LL/DEC All-Optical Network (AON)
Architecture . . . . 387
12.8.2 Bellcore's Optical Network Technology
Consortium (ONTC) . . . . 389
12.8.3 RACE MWTN Project . . . . 391
12.8.4 Multiwavelength Optical Networking (MONET)
Project . . . . 391
12.9 Summary . . . . 393
Exercises . . . . 394
Part IV: Potpourri . . . . 395
13.1 Introduction . . . . 398
13.2 System Architecture and Assumptions (Model) . . . . 401
13.3 Illustrative Examples . . . . 405
13.4 Optimization Criteria . . . . 406
13.4.1 MIN-CROSS . . . . 406
13.4.2 MIN-DIFF . . . . 407
13.4.3 MIN-DELAY . . . . 407
13.5 Flow-Based Algorithms . . . . 407
13.5.1 MIN-CROSS Algorithms . . . . 408
Kernighan-Lin Algorithm for W = 2 . . . . 410
Extensions for W > 2 . . . . 411
13.5.2 MIN-DIFF Algorithm . . . . 412
MIN-DIFF for W = 2 . . . . 412
MIN-DIFF for W > 2 . . . . 414
13.6 Delay-Based Algorithms . . . . 415
13.6.1 Performance Analysis . . . . 415
Throughput Analysis . . . . 416
Delay Analysis . . . . 416
13.6.2 Partitioning Algorithm . . . . 417
13.7 Illustrative Examples . . . . 418
13.7.1 Network Description . . . . 418
13.7.2 Delay vs. N Characteristics (Two Partitions) . . . 419
Delay vs. Throughput Characteristics
(Two Partitions) . . . 421
13.7.3 Two or Greater Partitions . . . . 425
MIN-DIFF Algorithm . . . . 425
MIN-CROSS Algorithm . . . . 425
13.8 Summary . . . . 427
Exercises . . . . 429
14.1 Introduction . . . . 432
14.1.1 Wavelength Crossconnect Switches . . . . 433
14.2 Network Assumptions . . . . 436
14.3 Overview of Solution and Algorithms . . . . 439
14.4 Details of Algorithms . . . . 440
14.4.1 NETWORK GENERATOR (Module 1) . . . . 441
14.4.2 SWITCH PORT LABELER (Module 2) . . . . 442
14.4.3 \Lambda_0 CYCLE ELIMINATOR (Module 3) . . . . 443
14.4.4 CONNECTION SETUP (Module 4) . . . . 444
14.4.5 \Lambda_k CYCLE ELIMINATOR (Module 5) . . . . 445
14.4.6 (STATIC) NETWORK CONFIGURATION ANALYZER
(Module 6) . . . . 446
14.5 Illustrative Examples . . . . 447
14.5.1 Dynamic Analysis . . . . 447
Application of Algorithms on Example Physical
Networks . . . . 447
Performance Analysis of Dynamic Algorithms . . . . 449
14.5.2 Static Analysis . . . . 453
14.6 Summary . . . . 458
Exercises . . . . 458
15.1 Introduction . . . . 464
15.1.1 Network Environment . . . . 464
15.1.2 Problem Definition . . . . 467
15.1.3 Amplifier Gain Model . . . . 469
15.2 Solution Approach . . . . 471
15.2.1 Formulation . . . . 472
Device Parameters . . . . 472
Problem Variables . . . . 472
Useful Functions . . . . 473
Basic and Nonbasic Variables . . . . 474
Constraints . . . . 475
Objective function . . . . 476
Complexity . . . . 476
Reasons for Nonlinearities . . . . 477
15.2.2 Solver Strategies . . . . 477
15.2.3 Amplifier-Placement Module . . . . 479
15.3 Illustrative Examples . . . . 479
15.4 Open Problems . . . . 486
15.4.1 Switched Networks . . . . 486
15.4.2 Gain Model . . . . 488
15.5 Summary . . . . 488
Exercises . . . . 488
16.1 Optical TDM Networks . . . . 494
16.1.1 Basics of TDM . . . . 494
16.1.2 Optical TDM . . . . 496
16.1.3 Optical Sources . . . . 497
16.1.4 Modulation and Multiplexing . . . . 498
16.1.5 Transmission of Ultrafast OTDM Signal Using
Soliton . . . . 499
Features of Solitons . . . . 501
16.1.6 Demultiplexing and Clock Recovery . . . . 501
16.1.7 Optical Processing . . . . 504
16.1.8 Optical TDM Network Architectures and
Proposals . . . . 504
An Example Optical TDM LAN: The HLAN Architecture . . . . 504
An Example Photonic Packet Switch:
The Staggering Switch . . . . 505
Another Example Photonic Packet Switch:
Contention Resolution by Delay Lines (CORD) . . . . 506
16.2 Optical CDMA Networks . . . . 507
16.2.1 Basics of CDMA . . . . 507
16.2.2 Spread Spectrum . . . . 509
Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum . . . . 509
Frequency Hopping . . . . 509
Time Hopping . . . . 510
16.2.3 Code Sequences . . . . 510
16.2.4 CDMA Example . . . . 512
16.2.5 Optical CDMA . . . . 514
Exercises . . . . 520
A.1 General Resources and Publications . . . . 523
A.2 Enabling Technologies . . . . 524
A.3 Tutorials/Surveys/Reviews . . . . 525
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Last updated: July 29, 1997